Post Modernist Approach to Organisational Analysis

Postmodernism is a broad movement that developed in the 20^th century that is a departure from modernism (Mura, 2012). Whilst encompassing a wide variety of approaches, postmodernism is generally defined by an attitude of scepticism, irony or rejection towards the meta-narratives and ideologies of modernism, often calling into question various assumptions of enlightenment rationality (Duigan, 2016). Postmodernists frequently call attention to the contingent nature of knowledge claims and value systems, situating them as products of a particular political, historical or cultural discourses and hierarchies. Post-modernism is concerned with the abandonment of conventional ideas of originality and authorship in favour of a pastiche of novel and unique style (Palmer, 2014).

Post-modernism entails an intellectual movement which arose to challenge or deconstruct several modernist themes that had been articulated during the enlightenment period. Post-modernism, led by Derrida, was concerned with a desire to contribute to the re-evaluation of all Western values built from alleged pure reason in the 18^th century and carried forward to the 19^th century in their more radical implications (Zuckert, 1996). The challenges were on downstream thinking which accepts the status quo voetstoots, with neither reservation nor qualification but rather vague generalisation. On the other hand post-modernism seeks qualification for phenomena, actions, systems, cultures, languages and any other aspect of an organisation deconstructing them to seek the hidden meanings and dichotomies that are presented as a shared phenomenon. Post-modernist approaches to organisational analysis can be viewed as upstream thinking as they seek a deeper and hidden understanding of phenomena with the aim of establishing what informs thought processes and decisions, the motives intended and the dynamics involved (Murphy, 2009).

The primary tenets of post-modernism are the elevation of text and language as fundamental phenomena of existence, the application of literary analysis to all phenomena, a questioning of reality and representation, a critique of metanarratives, argument against method and evaluation, a focus on power relations and hegemony and a general critique of western institutions and knowledge (Boyne & Rattansi, 1990) (Kuzner, 2008). Hence, post-modernism entails the intellectual movement applied to all facets of organisational analysis that seeks a deeper understanding of phenomena, questioning what is assumed to be the rationale behind such phenomenon and seeking to establish motives and dynamics involved.

Notable post-modernist approaches include focus on post-modernism in academic anthropology (Agar, 1997), Baudrillard (1995) whose main argument was that there is no real world but the world as we know it is a set of models ( (Roseneau, 1993), the deconstruction of texts and probing the relationship of meaning between texts (Derrida, 1997), focus on power (Foucault, 1970), trying to show that what society views as permanent truths actually changes over time, post-modernism in the religious settings and institutions (Geertz, 1973), and the critique of grand narratives, metanarratives and proposed the acceptance of the un-representable (Lyotard, 1984). For the purpose of this paper the writer will test the works of Buadrillard (1995), Foucault (1970), and Lyotard (1984) as they are better suited at addressing the issue of HR strategizing in an organisational setting.

Post-modernism offers vast possibilities to the Human Resources Strategist in crafting strategies. Most of these Human Resources strategies inform processes which would ultimately lead to Human Resources outcomes or products. Post-modernism thus contributes to the creation of well thought out strategies calculated to deliver the mandate of the organisation through processes and outcomes.

Cultural strategies in organisations are informed by post-modernism in Zimbabwe. Culture as has three levels which are artefacts, espoused values and basic assumptions and values (Schein, 1992). Artefacts or symbolism in general and corporate wear in particular has been extensively used by organisations in Zimbabwean mining sector such as RioZim, Mbada Diamonds (prior to consolidation), Zimplats, Unki Platinum Mine and Mimosa Mining Company among others to drive corporate strategies. Informed by post-modernism, the dress codes, branding, information printed on the corporate wear as well as colour codes are intended to have a deeper meaning that seeks or is aimed at driving particular interests of the organisation’s overall strategy. Of note is the ubiquitous “Zero harm” mantra meant to instil a sense of safety through cultural symbolism. These are deliberate attempts to influence the way employees in an organisation think and behave in certain circumstances. Modernists, positivist and downstream thinkers will view dressing as it is without attaching any meaning whilst post-modernist, who are upstream thinkers, will seek to attach meaning and thus be able to drive a subtle agenda through Human Resources strategies.

Control, disciplinary and security strategies in the mining industry in Zimbabwe have been greatly informed by Foucault’s (1970) post-modernist perspective on discipline and control. Foucault (1970) argues that people’s behaviour can be controlled and discipline maintained through observation and examination. He also argues that behaviour could be rectified or aligned to intended behaviour through a learned sense of observation which he termed the panopticon. This is a scenario whereby one thinks he is being observed and thus normalises behaviour. Discipline and control in the mining industry are maintained through the use of Closed Circuit Television, Alcohol and drug breathalysers and uniformed security personnel. The intended intention of these is not to catch thieves, delinquents or those committing acts of misconduct. The actual intent according to Foucault (1970) is rather to dissuade employees from committing such acts of misconduct in the first place and normalising their own behaviour.

Baudrillard’s (1995) argument that the world as we know it is a set of models can be used to inform Human Resources Strategies in the mining industry in Zimbabwe. Organisations are run by people who are heterogeneous and capable of doing anything either consistent or inconsistent with the needs and aspirations of shareholders. Hence the behaviour of employees need to be conditioned in such a way that action are predictable and preferable through the employ of various models aimed at achieving intended results in any aspect of the organisation. Almost all aspects of Human Resources and Strategy are informed by models be they of recruitment, training, discipline, motivation, reward, and in novel situations then congruence models are employed. This then follows the post-modernist views that Human Resources strategies should be informed by models that have already been tried and tested successfully (Baudrillard, 1995).

Post-modernism has also led to Human Resources strategies that favour individualism and accountability. This stems from the positivist approach of reification of the organisation. Post-modernists on the other hand view the organisation as composed of individuals who make decisions and commit actions which collectively or those of the dominant people will then be called organisational decisions, as the Upper Echelon theory suggests (Hambrick & Mason, 1984). This has led to strategies in reward and discipline aimed at rewarding those individuals who drive organisational objectives, as in the case of the Zimplats departmental bonus schemes. It has also informed decisions on discipline and punishment especially when it comes to the personal accountability of corporate executives in making poor decisions that border criminal conduct and the liability ceases to be of the company as a legal persona but rather as an official in his personal capacity.

The advantage of post-modernist approaches when applied to Human Resources Strategy is that it looks beyond the obvious and establishes the hidden meaning and intent which could then be used as a basis of creating strategies. Post-modernism also contributes to the establishment of desired cultures in organisations intended to drive corporate objectives.

There are however challenges in using post-modernism as a tool in coming up with Human Resources strategies. Post-modernism, Derrida (1997) in particular is criticised for problematizing the grounds of reason, truth and knowledge. Post-modernism is criticised for questioning the highest point by demanding the reasoning behind reasoning itself (Norris, 1990). Though post-modernism enables for critical evaluation of phenomena, not all phenomenon need to be critically evaluated and not all phenomenon have hidden meanings. As positivism suggests at times things are what they are.

In light of the above discussion post-modernism is an important tool in the analysis of organisations in general and in Human Resources strategy in particular. The contributions thereof inform strategies meant to deliver on their mandate as well as drive organisational objectives. However, in applying post-modernism, the Human Resources practitioner should be informed that not all aspects of post-modernism are applicable hence the need to use post-modernism in line with the congruency model such that at the end of the day fit and alignment are achieved.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Agar, M. (1997). Postmodern Link between Academia and Practice. RSS Feed National Association for the Practice of Anthropology Bulletin.

Baudrillard, J. (1995). Simulacra Simulation. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

Boyne, R., & Rattansi, A. (1990). The theory f Politics of postmodernism: By way of an Introduction. London: McMillan Limited.

Derrida, J. (1997). Deconstruction in a nutshell. New York: Fordham University Press.

Duigan, B. (2016, April 24). Postmodernism. Retrieved from Brittanica: http://www.britannica.com/postmodernism

Foucault, M. (1970). The Order of Things: an Archeology f Human Sciences. New York City: Pantheon Books.

Geertz, C. (1973). The INterpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.

Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A. (1984). Upper Echelons: The Organisation as a reflection of its Top Managers. The Academy of Management Review 9 (2), 193-206.

Kuzner, L. A. (2008). Reclaiming a scientific anthropology. Lanham: Altamira.

Lyotard, J.-F. (1984). The Postmodern Condition: A report on Knowledge. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Mura, A. (2012). The Symbolic Function f Transmodenity. Language and Psychoanalysis 1 (1) doi:10.7565/landp.2012.0005, 68-87.

Murphy, M. D. (2009). Postmodernism and its critics Daniel Saberg, Robert Stewart, Karla Wesley and Shannon Weiss. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama.

Norris, C. (1990). What is wrong with postmodernism. London: Harvester Whetsheaf.

Palmer, D. (2014, January 3). Explainer: What Is Post-Modernism. Retrieved from theconversation.com: https://theconversation.com/amp/explainer-what-is-post-modernism-20791

Roseneau, P. (1993). Postmodernism and the Social Sciences. New York: John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Schein, E. (1992). Organistionl Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Zuckert, C. (1996). Postmodern Platos: Nietzsche, Heidegger, Gadamer, Strauss, Derrida. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

 

 

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow was one of the most influential psychologists of the twentieth century. His biggest contributions to psychology were his contributions to humanistic psychology as well as his development of the hierarchy of needs. Maslow’s career in psychology greatly predated the modern positive psychology movement, but it might not look the same were it not for him. He was a Classical Theorist who believed in the division of labour to increase productivity. However Maslow brought in a new dimension that was developed from Herbert Simon’s [1930] Bounded Rationality theory (Fiske and Taylor 1991). Maslow highlighted that there were external factors that were not intrinsic to the human being that also drove a human being to perform other than just division of labour, specialisation and creating efficient work processes.

"It is quite true that man lives by bread alone — when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled? At once other (and “higher”) needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still “higher”) needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency" [Maslow, 1943, p. 375]. In 1943 Maslow presented his Hierarchy of needs which was initially a 5 staged pyramid. The Hierarchy of needs was arranged in such a manner that the basic need was at the bottom of the pyramid whilst advanced or higher order needs were at the apex of the pyramid.

According to Maslow the lower order needs had to be satisfied first before higher order needs are satisfied. He argued that an unsatisfied need becomes a motivator that encourages positive behaviour. He also argued that once a need is satisfied and remains satisfied, it ceases to be a motivator and a person is then motivated by the pursuit of achieving higher order needs.

1.      Physiological

The first need that Maslow identified was physiological needs. These entailed food, air, water, shelter and sex. Maslow argued that physiological needs were basic to human survival and every human being seeks to satisfy these before other needs are satisfied. Maslow postulates that human behaviour, productivity, is thus driven if the achievement of a certain level of productivity will entail satisfaction of physiological needs. Maslow thus argues that a person will increase productivity to ensure they satisfy basic survival related needs.

2.      Safety

After having satisfied the physiological needs, Maslow argue that humans seek to satisfy their need for safety. This entails being safe from harm and injury either at the workplace or from work related activities. Maslow argues that this is a level of awareness whereby the human being becomes conscious that even though they have to satisfy physiological needs, they must satisfy the needs through safe practices. For example when employees realise that even though a wage ensures that they can eat meals and afford shelter, they have to be safe at their workplace as well and not endanger their lives.

3.      Love / Belonging

Having satisfied the physiological needs and the Safety needs the human/ employee needs to satisfy the need for love and belonging. This entails the need to belong and be accepted in organisations either formal or informal that are related to the undertaking or interests of the human being. For example the need for a human being to feel that they are part of the company they work for and they are loved in the company they work for and the department they work under.

4.      Esteem

Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (status, prestige). Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity. This is exemplified in organisations through recognitions, long service awards, achievement awards and employee of the month or year awards.

5.      Self-Actualisation

Maslow stated that this entailed realizing personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming (Maslow, 1987, p. 64). This Maslow explained that it was achieving the best that one could ever become. For example in Real Madrid Football Club, Zinedine Yazid Zidane has achieved the highest levels both as a player and after retirement by being a team captain and Club Manager respectively.

Abraham Maslow was however fortunate enough that he lived long to see the various criticisms that were levelled against his theory and rather than taking a defensive stance he incorporated some of the criticisms to come up with a high breed revised model that took cognisance of the new information in 1970. The revised model is depicted below and the additional stages are also explained.

In his revised model of 1970 Maslow argued that the bottom four needs are deficiency needs which are mainly sought by those who lack whilst the top four are growth needs that are sought by those who seek personal development and growth.

Cognitive Needs

Maslow described cognitive needs as the need to acquire knowledge and understanding, satisfying curiosity, exploration, need for meaning and predictability. This can be exemplified by organisational training and development and provision of learning opportunities for employees to satisfy their cognitive needs.

Aesthetic Needs

This is the need of appreciation and search for beauty, balance and form. The endeavour to satisfy this need is exemplified the great lengths organisations go to ensure that their premises are beautified, offices of senior management are nice looking and some even send their top management to company paid vacations.

Transcendence Needs

This level is where by an individual who has already attained self-actualisation now seeks to help others attain self-actualisation. Examples of individuals who attained this stage of include Muhammad of the Islam Religion, Jesus Christ of the Christian Religion, Siddhartha Gautama of the Buddhism Religion, Strive Masiiwa of Econet Wireless and Bill Gates of Microsoft. It should be noted that for one to be in a position to attain or seek to attain the Transcendence stage, that individual should in his or her own right have achieved the self-actualisation that he or she now seeks others to achieve. It is also important to note that most people who have reached or who seek to reach the transcendence stage are or were founding and leading members of their various organisations

Applicability to Organisations in general and Zimbabwe in particular

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is highly applicable to Zimbabwean organisations. Looking at some of Zimbabwe’s largest mining and farming organisations the first this they establish are houses for their employees. Mining and farming conglomerates like Tongaat Hullet Zimbabwe, Zimplats, Mimosa Mining Company, Tanganda Tea Company, Unki Platinum, Shabanie and Mashaba Mines, to mention but a few have constructed houses for their employees. This is to ensure that the physiological need of shelter is met.

Organisations have now also incorporated the need to ensure safety of employees in the organisations. Safety, Health and Welfare departments are now present in almost all heavy industrial organisations in Zimbabwe. This is aimed at ensuring that employees’ need of safety is satisfied. If the need of safety is not satisfied then employees would work just enough to satisfy the physiological need and avoid further effort as it would increase their exposure to the harmful situations. Internationally there is a statute by the International Standardisation Organisation (ISO) namely OHSAS 45001 of 2007. Tongaat Hullet Zimbabwe is situated in the Zimbabwean lowveld which is infested by mosquitoes and they spray for mosquitoes in the area they operate to ensure the safety from malaria of their employees. This is a demonstration of an organisation seeking to meet the safety needs of its employees in Zimbabwe.

Criticisms

Cultures differ and the preferences of people differ across cultures. And even in the same cultural context, human beings are not a homogeneous being that is likely to behave in a similar fashion. Thus to argue that the need to satisfy need in a particular order of importance will stimulate an increase in productivity might not be overly factually correct.

The second criticism is that not everyone is altruistic. Even though other people might achieve self-actualisation they might not necessarily be willing or eager to help others to become self-actualised. In most dictatorships it can be established that rulers of those dictatorships are individuals who have achieved self-actualisation but because of fear of being overthrown they do not seek to empower others but rather seek to be a one true centre of power and knowledge. Examples of such individuals include Julius Caesar, Shaka Zulu, Kim Jong Il, Kim Jong Un, Robert Gabriel Mugabe, Saddam Hussein who all belong(ed) to political organisations.

Whereas it is argued that some self-actualise and never transcend, the opposite also hold true that some transcend without having self-actualised. In social dynamics there are people who fail to reach the best of their potential ostensibly due to the bounded rationality theory. These people claim to have had limited time to make decisions, lacked proper information and did not make a right decision in the end. However such people at times turn to the younger generation to try and mentor them to become the best of what they could be. This usually holds true in sporting disciplines. Religious figures like Monks, Priests and Popes also set out on a path to teach others to self-actualise despite the fact that some of their lower order needs might not have been met. Thus these people would have already reached the transcendence stage despite not having satisfied other lower stages.

Conclusion

Given the above analysis one could argue that even though Maslow’s hierarch of needs theory has loopholes and weaknesses when one attempts to use it in the understanding of organisations, its inputs are of vast importance and utility in the Zimbabwean context. Given such an analysis it is apparent that Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory was an important contribution to Neo-Classical Theory and it provides an important insight in the understanding of employees’ behaviour with regards to productivity provided all other factors of production are held constant.

Reference List

1.      Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. [1991]. Social Cognition (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

2.      ISO 45001 Whitepaper: A new International Standard for Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems" (PDF). BSIgroup.com. British Standards Institution. Retrieved 09-03-2018.

3.      Joaquin [2017] https://positivepsychologyprogram.com/abraham-maslow/ Retrieved 08-03-2018

4.      McLeod S. [2017] https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html Retrieved 09-03-2018

5.      Maslow, A. H. [1987]. Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). Delhi, India: Pearson Education.

6.      Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Retrieved 09-03-2018

Gender and Empowerment

GENDER AND EMPOWERMENT

1.      Introduction

Social needs and human behaviour are not constant, they are rather dynamic continuously ever changing to suit the demands of society as a whole, the  various sub groups in a society as well as individuals that make up the society. Indeed as aptly captured by Esther Boserup in Waugh [1996] “necessity is the mother of inventions.”   Maslow [1954] as cited by Armstrong [2006] states that human beings are wanting beings, continuously seeking to satisfy higher needs. It can also be interpreted to say human beings continuously seek better positions, better rights and better privileges in society than the ones they had before.  In light of the above, groups in society based on gender are constantly seeking to have their positions elevated in society, they are seeking gender empowerment. It is against this background that the presenter will offer a presentation on Gender and Empowerment. The presenter will start by defining key terms, offer theoretical views on gender and empowerment, present a legal perspective on gender and empowerment, offer a social perspective on gender and empowerment, explore measures put in place to address the issue of gender and empowerment, the barriers to the effective implementation of gender and empowerment initiatives and will sum up by offering a personal view point.

2.      Definition of key terms

Gender is defined by FAO as ‘the relations between men and women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics of either women or men, but is constructed socially. It is a central organizing principle of societies, and often governs the processes of production and reproduction, consumption and distribution’ (FAO, 1997). Despite this definition, gender is often misunderstood as being the promotion of women only. However, as we see from the FAO definition, gender issues focus on women and on the relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over resources, division of labour, interests and needs. Gender relations affect household security, family well-being, planning, production and many other aspects of life. Newman [2000] defines gender as the variety of phenomena in intimate relationships such as the way people talk to each other, how they express themselves sexually, how they deal with different situations and what they feel their responsibilities are. Shepherd [1999] defines gender as the personal traits and social positions to make up a society. Gender is thus a dimension of social organisation dictating how people in society should interact with each other and what is expected of them in that particular interaction. Stoller [1968] postulates that if the proper terms of sex are ‘male and female’, the corresponding terms of gender are ‘masculine and feminine.’  He goes on to argue that the latter might be independent of nature (biological sex) but rather an issue of orientation (whether one views himself or herself as masculine or feminine).  This presentation will thus look at gender in a two-fold manner. Firstly and to a larger extent, gender as a derivate of biology simply entailing male and female. Secondly, but to a lesser extent, gender as a matter of sexual orientation so as to include homosexuals, whose sexual orientation might not be influenced by their biological makeup of male and female.

Chamberlin [2013] recognized that empowerment had elements in common with such concepts as self-esteem and self-efficacy, and also felt that these concepts did not fully capture what she saw as distinctive about empowerment. After much discussion, she defined empowerment as having a number of qualities, as follows:

a)      Having decision-making power.

b)      Having access to information and resources.

c)      Having a range of options from which to make choices (not just yes/no, either/or.)

d)      Assertiveness.

e)      A feeling that the individual can make a difference (being hopeful).

f)       Learning to think critically; learning the conditioning; seeing things differently; e.g.,

g)      Learning about and expressing anger.

h)      Not feeling alone; feeling part of a group.

i)        Understanding that people have rights.

j)        Effecting change in one's life and one's community.

k)      Learning skills (e.g., communication) that the individual defines as important.

l)        Changing others' perceptions of one's competency and capacity to act.

m)   Coming out of the closet.

n)      Growth and change that is never ending and self-initiated.

o)      Increasing one's positive self-image and overcoming stigma.

She decided early in her discussions that empowerment was complex, multidimensional concept, and that it described a process rather than an event. Therefore, she did not believe that an individual had to display every quality on the list in order to be considered "empowered."  The definition offered by Chamberlin [2013] is broad and all encompassing making it an ideal definition. However a shorter and equally operational definition was offered by the World Bank. The World Bank [2011] defines empowerment as the process of increasing the capacity of individuals or groups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes. Central to this process are actions which both build individual and collective assets, and improve the efficiency and fairness of the organizational and institutional context which govern the use of these assets.

3.      Theoretical perspectives

In order to have an in-depth understanding of gender and empowerment it is important that one gets an appreciation of the theoretical perspectives in relation to gender and empowerment.

Feminism

Hawkeswoth [2006] states that Feminism is a range of movements and ideologies that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve equal political, economic, cultural, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment While Marxists and feminists often find themselves on the same side in struggles for women’s rights, they hold two fundamentally incompatible worldviews. Feminism is an ideology premised on the idea that the fundamental division in human society is between the sexes, rather than between social classes. Feminist ideologues consequently see the struggle for female equality as separate from the fight for socialism, which many dismiss as merely an alternative form of ‘‘patriarchal’’ rule. In the past several decades, feminist writers and academics have drawn attention to the variety and extent of male supremacist practices in contemporary society. They have described the mechanisms by which female subordination is inculcated, normalized and reinforced through everything from fairy tales to television advertising. Feminists have taken the lead in exposing many of the pathological manifestations of sexism in private life: from sexual harassment to rape and domestic violence [www.bolshevik.org]. Thus Feminism, like Marxism, strongly supports the emancipation of women and seeks to expose exploitation whilst advocating for empowerment.

4.      Legal perspective on empowerment.

At this point it should be noted that the pinnacle of gender empowerment is to eliminate any form of gender discrimination. As women have been traditionally marginalised the elimination of discrimination automatically provides a platform for gender equality which becomes empowerment for women, considering they were/are marginalised.

a.      International Declaration of Human Rights

The International Declaration of Human Rights is a resolution that was passed in 1948 and Zimbabwe ratified that resolution becoming obliged to encompass the resolutions of that convention into law. The International Declaration of Human Rights among other aims seeks to end discrimination in all its forms. By merely ending discrimination this provides a platform for the emancipation and empowerment of women.

b.      The Constitution of The Republic of Zimbabwe

Chapter iii of the constitution of Zimbabwe provides a Declaration of Rights and section 23 sub-section 2 states that “a law shall be regarded as making a provision that is discriminatory and a person shall be regarded as having been treated in a discriminatory manner if, as a result of that law or treatment, persons of a particular description by race, tribe, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed, sex, gender, marital status or physical disability are prejudiced—“ thus by protecting all Zimbabweans against discrimination the constitution actually advocates for the empowerment of previously marginalised groups.

c.       The Labour Act 28.01

In Zimbabwe the Labour Act chapter 28.01 section 5 states that, ‘No employer shall discriminate against any employee or prospective employee on the grounds of race, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed or sex in relation to any matters related to employment. This in support of the Constitution offers a legal basis for empowerment in regards to employment matters in Zimbabwe.

d.      The Public Service Act chapter 16.04

Section 18 of the Public Service Act chapter 16.04 prohibit discrimination on the basis of gender, age, race, colour, creed, place of origin, religion, political opinion and HIV status in all spectrums of the employment relationship for those employed in the Public Service sector.

e.      Domestic Violence Bill

The domestic violence bill is an act of parliament which is aimed at putting an end to the domestic violence which was mainly perpetrated by males on females.

f.        Legal Age of Majority Act

The Legal Age of Majority Act is an act of Parliament which empowers every Zimbabwean who reaches the age of 18 with privileges and rights despite that person’s gender. Some of the rights and privileges include the right to decide to marry, the right to vote, to purchase alcohol and tobacco to mention but a few.

g.      Inheritance Act

The Inheritance Act is a piece of legislation that governs the execution of an estate. Traditionally sons and male relatives of the deceased usually benefited at the expense of the widow and daughters. However the Inheritance Act empowers females in that it guarantees for equity in the execution of an estate.

5.      Social perspective on gender empowerment

Despite the legal instrument in place that advocate for gender empowerment there are also some social policies that have been introduced that seek to ensure gender empowerment.

a.      Affirmative Action

Affirmative action is a policy introduced by government meant to offer a slight advantage to previously marginalized groups so as to create a balance and equity. It was initially introduced to address the racial imbalances that existed in the colonial era but it was modified to also include women as a previously marginalized group. This policy has been a great success at tertiary institutions where the admission requirements for females are slightly relaxed compared to males.

b.      Parliamentary Proportional Representation

The Government of Zimbabwe also introduced a policy that promotes female politicians. A third of the seats in parliament are exclusively reserved for women whilst the remainder can be competed for by both males and females. This policy was lauded by many Feminist groups as a key step in female empowerment.

c.       Government Ministries

The government of Zimbabwe has created specific ministries to address the issue of gender empowerment. Through the Ministry of Women, Gender and Empowerment Creation, the government has shown vast commitment for the need to empower women in all facets of society. Through the Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprises the government has also spearheaded initiatives in the economic and business emancipation of women.

d.      Gender Commission

As part of the Zimbabwean Government’s efforts to meet its gender based objectives in terms of women emancipation, a gender commission has been set up. Once the commission starts operations it aims to ensure that there is no discrimination against gender lines and that women are emancipated. It seeks to be the vanguard of all legislation that relates to gender in Zimbabwe.

e.      Gender based Lobby Groups

There has also been an advent of gender based lobby groups in Zimbabwe which seek to realise their various perceived rights. Most of these lobby groups are Non Governmental Organisations. Some of the more prominent ones are Msasa Project (Female Rights), Girl Child Network (Girls’ Rights), Indigenous Business Women Organisation – IBWO (Lobbying for favourable policy for women in business), Gays and Lesbians Association of Zimbabwe (Homosexual Rights) and Padare Men’s Forum (Men’s Rights).

6.      Barriers to effective gender empowerment

In as much as there is legislation in place and social policies that are in favour of gender empowerment, there are also various barriers preventing the full implementation of gender empowerment.

a.      Culture

The culture of Zimbabwe has been constructed in such a way to make the country a Patriarchal society. Thus in as much as Acts of Parliament might be passed and Policies introduced most males feel they are superior to females and most females accept their inferior position in society. That social construction is not something that can be changed overnight and it will take quite some time to cultivate a new culture of empowered women.

b.      Religion

Zimbabwe is a dominantly Christian country with minority Islamist, Jewish and African traditionalist. All these religions emphasize on Patriarchy. Religion is usually a spiritual issue the world over where one feels attached to the teachings and usually deviation from religious teachings is frowned upon. This has meant that females submit themselves to the male patriarchs at the expense of their own emancipation.

c.       Bride Price (Lobola)

It is the view of most Zimbabwean males that since they are the ones paying the bride price then females should submit to their will. It is a view which almost equates females to commodities that are bought to be at the disposal of the buyer. Though the Zimbabwean majority views Lobola as a barrier observations in India where the bride’s family pays dowry, (a form of Lobola but paid by the female instead) indicate that the same patriarchal societies still exist.

d.      Morality

The idea of what is morally acceptable and what is not has also become a barrier to gender empowerment. By definition it was established above that gender has more to do with sexual orientation than biology. Gays and Lesbians have had their perceived right denied because of the idea that it is regarded as morally unacceptable.

7.      Conclusion

In light of the discussion one may conclude that the empowerment is necessary and is important for the development of society. The Zimbabwean Government can also be commended for putting in place various measures that encourage gender empowerment. The barriers to effective gender empowerment are socially constructed and they are hard if not out rightly impossible to overcome in the short term.

Reference list

1.      Armstrong, M. [2006]. A Handbook of Human Resources Management Practice. London; Kogan Page Limited.

2.      Chamberlin, J. [2013]. National Empowerment Centre Articles: A working Definition of Empowerment. Massachusetts; National Empowerment Centre.

3.      Constitution of Zimbabwe [2013]. Harare; Government Printers.

4.      Dunayevskaya, R. Luxemburg, R. [1991]. Women’s Liberation and Marx’s Philosophy of Revolution. Chicago; University of Illinois Press.

5.      F.A.O. [1997]. What is Gender? Paris; F.A.O.

6.      Hawkesworth, M.E. (2006). Globalization and Feminist Activism. New York; Rowman and Littlefield.

7.      Labour Act 28.01 [2006]. Harare; Government Printers.

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12.  www.bolshevik.org/1917/no19fem.pdf