GENDER AND EMPOWERMENT
1.
Introduction
Social needs and human
behaviour are not constant, they are rather dynamic continuously ever changing
to suit the demands of society as a whole, the
various sub groups in a society as well as individuals that make up the
society. Indeed as aptly captured by Esther Boserup in Waugh [1996] “necessity
is the mother of inventions.” Maslow
[1954] as cited by Armstrong [2006] states that human beings are wanting
beings, continuously seeking to satisfy higher needs. It can also be
interpreted to say human beings continuously seek better positions, better
rights and better privileges in society than the ones they had before. In light of the above, groups in society
based on gender are constantly seeking to have their positions elevated in
society, they are seeking gender empowerment. It is against this background
that the presenter will offer a presentation on Gender and Empowerment. The
presenter will start by defining key terms, offer theoretical views on gender
and empowerment, present a legal perspective on gender and empowerment, offer a
social perspective on gender and empowerment, explore measures put in place to
address the issue of gender and empowerment, the barriers to the effective
implementation of gender and empowerment initiatives and will sum up by
offering a personal view point.
2. Definition
of key terms
Gender
is defined by FAO as ‘the relations between men and women, both perceptual and
material. Gender is not determined biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics
of either women or men, but is constructed socially. It is a central organizing
principle of societies, and often governs the processes of production and
reproduction, consumption and distribution’ (FAO, 1997). Despite this
definition, gender is often misunderstood as being the promotion of women only.
However, as we see from the FAO definition, gender issues focus on women and on
the relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over
resources, division of labour, interests and needs. Gender relations affect
household security, family well-being, planning, production and many other
aspects of life. Newman [2000] defines gender as the variety of phenomena in
intimate relationships such as the way people talk to each other, how they
express themselves sexually, how they deal with different situations and what
they feel their responsibilities are. Shepherd [1999] defines gender as the
personal traits and social positions to make up a society. Gender is thus a
dimension of social organisation dictating how people in society should
interact with each other and what is expected of them in that particular
interaction. Stoller [1968] postulates that if the proper terms of sex are
‘male and female’, the corresponding terms of gender are ‘masculine and
feminine.’ He goes on to argue that the
latter might be independent of nature (biological sex) but rather an issue of
orientation (whether one views himself or herself as masculine or feminine). This presentation will thus look at gender in
a two-fold manner. Firstly and to a larger extent, gender as a derivate of
biology simply entailing male and female. Secondly, but to a lesser extent,
gender as a matter of sexual orientation so as to include homosexuals, whose
sexual orientation might not be influenced by their biological makeup of male
and female.
Chamberlin
[2013] recognized that empowerment had elements in common with such concepts as
self-esteem and self-efficacy, and also felt that these concepts did not fully
capture what she saw as distinctive about empowerment. After much discussion,
she defined empowerment as having a number of qualities, as follows:
a)
Having
decision-making power.
b)
Having access to
information and resources.
c)
Having a range of
options from which to make choices (not just yes/no, either/or.)
d)
Assertiveness.
e)
A feeling that
the individual can make a difference (being hopeful).
f)
Learning to think
critically; learning the conditioning; seeing things differently; e.g.,
g)
Learning about
and expressing anger.
h)
Not feeling
alone; feeling part of a group.
i)
Understanding
that people have rights.
j)
Effecting change
in one's life and one's community.
k)
Learning skills
(e.g., communication) that the individual defines as important.
l)
Changing others'
perceptions of one's competency and capacity to act.
m)
Coming out of the
closet.
n)
Growth and change
that is never ending and self-initiated.
o)
Increasing one's
positive self-image and overcoming stigma.
She
decided early in her discussions that empowerment was complex, multidimensional
concept, and that it described a process rather than an event. Therefore, she
did not believe that an individual had to display every quality on the list in
order to be considered "empowered." The definition offered by Chamberlin [2013] is
broad and all encompassing making it an ideal definition. However a shorter and
equally operational definition was offered by the World Bank. The World Bank
[2011] defines empowerment as the process of increasing the capacity of
individuals or groups to make choices and to transform those choices into
desired actions and outcomes. Central to this process are actions which both
build individual and collective assets, and improve the efficiency and fairness
of the organizational and institutional context which govern the use of these
assets.
3. Theoretical
perspectives
In
order to have an in-depth understanding of gender and empowerment it is
important that one gets an appreciation of the theoretical perspectives in
relation to gender and empowerment.
Feminism
Hawkeswoth
[2006] states that Feminism is a range of movements
and ideologies that share a common goal: to define, establish, and
achieve equal political, economic, cultural, personal, and
social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish equal
opportunities for women in education and employment While Marxists and
feminists often find themselves on the same side in struggles for women’s
rights, they hold two fundamentally incompatible worldviews. Feminism is an
ideology premised on the idea that the fundamental division in human society is
between the sexes, rather than between social classes. Feminist ideologues
consequently see the struggle for female equality as separate from the fight
for socialism, which many dismiss as merely an alternative form of ‘‘patriarchal’’
rule. In the past several decades, feminist writers and academics have drawn
attention to the variety and extent of male supremacist practices in
contemporary society. They have described the mechanisms by which female
subordination is inculcated, normalized and reinforced through everything from
fairy tales to television advertising. Feminists have taken the lead in
exposing many of the pathological manifestations of sexism in private life:
from sexual harassment to rape and domestic violence [www.bolshevik.org]. Thus
Feminism, like Marxism, strongly supports the emancipation of women and seeks
to expose exploitation whilst advocating for empowerment.
4. Legal
perspective on empowerment.
At
this point it should be noted that the pinnacle of gender empowerment is to
eliminate any form of gender discrimination. As women have been traditionally
marginalised the elimination of discrimination automatically provides a
platform for gender equality which becomes empowerment for women, considering
they were/are marginalised.
a.
International Declaration of Human Rights
The
International Declaration of Human Rights is a resolution that was passed in
1948 and Zimbabwe ratified that resolution becoming obliged to encompass the
resolutions of that convention into law. The International Declaration of Human
Rights among other aims seeks to end discrimination in all its forms. By merely
ending discrimination this provides a platform for the emancipation and
empowerment of women.
b.
The Constitution of The Republic of Zimbabwe
Chapter
iii of the constitution of Zimbabwe provides a Declaration of Rights and
section 23 sub-section 2 states that “a law shall be regarded as making a
provision that is discriminatory and a person shall be regarded as having been
treated in a discriminatory manner if, as a result of that law or treatment,
persons of a particular description by race, tribe, place of origin, political
opinions, colour, creed, sex, gender, marital status or physical disability are
prejudiced—“ thus by protecting all Zimbabweans against discrimination the
constitution actually advocates for the empowerment of previously marginalised
groups.
c.
The Labour Act 28.01
In
Zimbabwe the Labour Act chapter 28.01 section 5 states that, ‘No employer shall discriminate against any employee
or prospective employee on the grounds of race, tribe, place of origin,
political opinion, colour, creed or sex in relation to any matters related to
employment. This in support of the Constitution offers a legal basis for
empowerment in regards to employment matters in Zimbabwe.
d.
The Public Service Act chapter 16.04
Section
18 of the Public Service Act chapter 16.04 prohibit discrimination on the basis
of gender, age, race, colour, creed, place of origin, religion, political
opinion and HIV status in all spectrums of the employment relationship for
those employed in the Public Service sector.
e.
Domestic Violence Bill
The
domestic violence bill is an act of parliament which is aimed at putting an end
to the domestic violence which was mainly perpetrated by males on females.
f.
Legal Age of Majority Act
The
Legal Age of Majority Act is an act of Parliament which empowers every
Zimbabwean who reaches the age of 18 with privileges and rights despite that
person’s gender. Some of the rights and privileges include the right to decide
to marry, the right to vote, to purchase alcohol and tobacco to mention but a
few.
g.
Inheritance Act
The
Inheritance Act is a piece of legislation that governs the execution of an
estate. Traditionally sons and male relatives of the deceased usually benefited
at the expense of the widow and daughters. However the Inheritance Act empowers
females in that it guarantees for equity in the execution of an estate.
5. Social
perspective on gender empowerment
Despite
the legal instrument in place that advocate for gender empowerment there are
also some social policies that have been introduced that seek to ensure gender
empowerment.
a.
Affirmative Action
Affirmative
action is a policy introduced by government meant to offer a slight advantage to
previously marginalized groups so as to create a balance and equity. It was
initially introduced to address the racial imbalances that existed in the
colonial era but it was modified to also include women as a previously
marginalized group. This policy has been a great success at tertiary
institutions where the admission requirements for females are slightly relaxed
compared to males.
b.
Parliamentary Proportional Representation
The
Government of Zimbabwe also introduced a policy that promotes female politicians.
A third of the seats in parliament are exclusively reserved for women whilst
the remainder can be competed for by both males and females. This policy was
lauded by many Feminist groups as a key step in female empowerment.
c.
Government Ministries
The
government of Zimbabwe has created specific ministries to address the issue of
gender empowerment. Through the Ministry of Women, Gender and Empowerment
Creation, the government has shown vast commitment for the need to empower
women in all facets of society. Through the Ministry of Small and Medium
Enterprises the government has also spearheaded initiatives in the economic and
business emancipation of women.
d.
Gender Commission
As
part of the Zimbabwean Government’s efforts to meet its gender based objectives
in terms of women emancipation, a gender commission has been set up. Once the
commission starts operations it aims to ensure that there is no discrimination
against gender lines and that women are emancipated. It seeks to be the
vanguard of all legislation that relates to gender in Zimbabwe.
e.
Gender based Lobby Groups
There
has also been an advent of gender based lobby groups in Zimbabwe which seek to
realise their various perceived rights. Most of these lobby groups are Non
Governmental Organisations. Some of the more prominent ones are Msasa Project
(Female Rights), Girl Child Network (Girls’ Rights), Indigenous Business Women
Organisation – IBWO (Lobbying for favourable policy for women in business), Gays
and Lesbians Association of Zimbabwe (Homosexual Rights) and Padare Men’s Forum
(Men’s Rights).
6. Barriers to
effective gender empowerment
In
as much as there is legislation in place and social policies that are in favour
of gender empowerment, there are also various barriers preventing the full
implementation of gender empowerment.
a.
Culture
The
culture of Zimbabwe has been constructed in such a way to make the country a
Patriarchal society. Thus in as much as Acts of Parliament might be passed and
Policies introduced most males feel they are superior to females and most
females accept their inferior position in society. That social construction is
not something that can be changed overnight and it will take quite some time to
cultivate a new culture of empowered women.
b.
Religion
Zimbabwe
is a dominantly Christian country with minority Islamist, Jewish and African
traditionalist. All these religions emphasize on Patriarchy. Religion is
usually a spiritual issue the world over where one feels attached to the
teachings and usually deviation from religious teachings is frowned upon. This
has meant that females submit themselves to the male patriarchs at the expense
of their own emancipation.
c.
Bride Price (Lobola)
It
is the view of most Zimbabwean males that since they are the ones paying the bride
price then females should submit to their will. It is a view which almost equates
females to commodities that are bought to be at the disposal of the buyer.
Though the Zimbabwean majority views Lobola as a barrier observations in India
where the bride’s family pays dowry, (a form of Lobola but paid by the female
instead) indicate that the same patriarchal societies still exist.
d.
Morality
The
idea of what is morally acceptable and what is not has also become a barrier to
gender empowerment. By definition it was established above that gender has more
to do with sexual orientation than biology. Gays and Lesbians have had their
perceived right denied because of the idea that it is regarded as morally
unacceptable.
7. Conclusion
In light of
the discussion one may conclude that the empowerment is necessary and is
important for the development of society. The Zimbabwean Government can also be
commended for putting in place various measures that encourage gender
empowerment. The barriers to effective gender empowerment are socially
constructed and they are hard if not out rightly impossible to overcome in the
short term.
Reference list
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Resources Management Practice. London; Kogan Page Limited.
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5. F.A.O. [1997]. What is Gender? Paris;
F.A.O.
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Printers.
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