Gender and Empowerment

GENDER AND EMPOWERMENT

1.      Introduction

Social needs and human behaviour are not constant, they are rather dynamic continuously ever changing to suit the demands of society as a whole, the  various sub groups in a society as well as individuals that make up the society. Indeed as aptly captured by Esther Boserup in Waugh [1996] “necessity is the mother of inventions.”   Maslow [1954] as cited by Armstrong [2006] states that human beings are wanting beings, continuously seeking to satisfy higher needs. It can also be interpreted to say human beings continuously seek better positions, better rights and better privileges in society than the ones they had before.  In light of the above, groups in society based on gender are constantly seeking to have their positions elevated in society, they are seeking gender empowerment. It is against this background that the presenter will offer a presentation on Gender and Empowerment. The presenter will start by defining key terms, offer theoretical views on gender and empowerment, present a legal perspective on gender and empowerment, offer a social perspective on gender and empowerment, explore measures put in place to address the issue of gender and empowerment, the barriers to the effective implementation of gender and empowerment initiatives and will sum up by offering a personal view point.

2.      Definition of key terms

Gender is defined by FAO as ‘the relations between men and women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics of either women or men, but is constructed socially. It is a central organizing principle of societies, and often governs the processes of production and reproduction, consumption and distribution’ (FAO, 1997). Despite this definition, gender is often misunderstood as being the promotion of women only. However, as we see from the FAO definition, gender issues focus on women and on the relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over resources, division of labour, interests and needs. Gender relations affect household security, family well-being, planning, production and many other aspects of life. Newman [2000] defines gender as the variety of phenomena in intimate relationships such as the way people talk to each other, how they express themselves sexually, how they deal with different situations and what they feel their responsibilities are. Shepherd [1999] defines gender as the personal traits and social positions to make up a society. Gender is thus a dimension of social organisation dictating how people in society should interact with each other and what is expected of them in that particular interaction. Stoller [1968] postulates that if the proper terms of sex are ‘male and female’, the corresponding terms of gender are ‘masculine and feminine.’  He goes on to argue that the latter might be independent of nature (biological sex) but rather an issue of orientation (whether one views himself or herself as masculine or feminine).  This presentation will thus look at gender in a two-fold manner. Firstly and to a larger extent, gender as a derivate of biology simply entailing male and female. Secondly, but to a lesser extent, gender as a matter of sexual orientation so as to include homosexuals, whose sexual orientation might not be influenced by their biological makeup of male and female.

Chamberlin [2013] recognized that empowerment had elements in common with such concepts as self-esteem and self-efficacy, and also felt that these concepts did not fully capture what she saw as distinctive about empowerment. After much discussion, she defined empowerment as having a number of qualities, as follows:

a)      Having decision-making power.

b)      Having access to information and resources.

c)      Having a range of options from which to make choices (not just yes/no, either/or.)

d)      Assertiveness.

e)      A feeling that the individual can make a difference (being hopeful).

f)       Learning to think critically; learning the conditioning; seeing things differently; e.g.,

g)      Learning about and expressing anger.

h)      Not feeling alone; feeling part of a group.

i)        Understanding that people have rights.

j)        Effecting change in one's life and one's community.

k)      Learning skills (e.g., communication) that the individual defines as important.

l)        Changing others' perceptions of one's competency and capacity to act.

m)   Coming out of the closet.

n)      Growth and change that is never ending and self-initiated.

o)      Increasing one's positive self-image and overcoming stigma.

She decided early in her discussions that empowerment was complex, multidimensional concept, and that it described a process rather than an event. Therefore, she did not believe that an individual had to display every quality on the list in order to be considered "empowered."  The definition offered by Chamberlin [2013] is broad and all encompassing making it an ideal definition. However a shorter and equally operational definition was offered by the World Bank. The World Bank [2011] defines empowerment as the process of increasing the capacity of individuals or groups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired actions and outcomes. Central to this process are actions which both build individual and collective assets, and improve the efficiency and fairness of the organizational and institutional context which govern the use of these assets.

3.      Theoretical perspectives

In order to have an in-depth understanding of gender and empowerment it is important that one gets an appreciation of the theoretical perspectives in relation to gender and empowerment.

Feminism

Hawkeswoth [2006] states that Feminism is a range of movements and ideologies that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve equal political, economic, cultural, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish equal opportunities for women in education and employment While Marxists and feminists often find themselves on the same side in struggles for women’s rights, they hold two fundamentally incompatible worldviews. Feminism is an ideology premised on the idea that the fundamental division in human society is between the sexes, rather than between social classes. Feminist ideologues consequently see the struggle for female equality as separate from the fight for socialism, which many dismiss as merely an alternative form of ‘‘patriarchal’’ rule. In the past several decades, feminist writers and academics have drawn attention to the variety and extent of male supremacist practices in contemporary society. They have described the mechanisms by which female subordination is inculcated, normalized and reinforced through everything from fairy tales to television advertising. Feminists have taken the lead in exposing many of the pathological manifestations of sexism in private life: from sexual harassment to rape and domestic violence [www.bolshevik.org]. Thus Feminism, like Marxism, strongly supports the emancipation of women and seeks to expose exploitation whilst advocating for empowerment.

4.      Legal perspective on empowerment.

At this point it should be noted that the pinnacle of gender empowerment is to eliminate any form of gender discrimination. As women have been traditionally marginalised the elimination of discrimination automatically provides a platform for gender equality which becomes empowerment for women, considering they were/are marginalised.

a.      International Declaration of Human Rights

The International Declaration of Human Rights is a resolution that was passed in 1948 and Zimbabwe ratified that resolution becoming obliged to encompass the resolutions of that convention into law. The International Declaration of Human Rights among other aims seeks to end discrimination in all its forms. By merely ending discrimination this provides a platform for the emancipation and empowerment of women.

b.      The Constitution of The Republic of Zimbabwe

Chapter iii of the constitution of Zimbabwe provides a Declaration of Rights and section 23 sub-section 2 states that “a law shall be regarded as making a provision that is discriminatory and a person shall be regarded as having been treated in a discriminatory manner if, as a result of that law or treatment, persons of a particular description by race, tribe, place of origin, political opinions, colour, creed, sex, gender, marital status or physical disability are prejudiced—“ thus by protecting all Zimbabweans against discrimination the constitution actually advocates for the empowerment of previously marginalised groups.

c.       The Labour Act 28.01

In Zimbabwe the Labour Act chapter 28.01 section 5 states that, ‘No employer shall discriminate against any employee or prospective employee on the grounds of race, tribe, place of origin, political opinion, colour, creed or sex in relation to any matters related to employment. This in support of the Constitution offers a legal basis for empowerment in regards to employment matters in Zimbabwe.

d.      The Public Service Act chapter 16.04

Section 18 of the Public Service Act chapter 16.04 prohibit discrimination on the basis of gender, age, race, colour, creed, place of origin, religion, political opinion and HIV status in all spectrums of the employment relationship for those employed in the Public Service sector.

e.      Domestic Violence Bill

The domestic violence bill is an act of parliament which is aimed at putting an end to the domestic violence which was mainly perpetrated by males on females.

f.        Legal Age of Majority Act

The Legal Age of Majority Act is an act of Parliament which empowers every Zimbabwean who reaches the age of 18 with privileges and rights despite that person’s gender. Some of the rights and privileges include the right to decide to marry, the right to vote, to purchase alcohol and tobacco to mention but a few.

g.      Inheritance Act

The Inheritance Act is a piece of legislation that governs the execution of an estate. Traditionally sons and male relatives of the deceased usually benefited at the expense of the widow and daughters. However the Inheritance Act empowers females in that it guarantees for equity in the execution of an estate.

5.      Social perspective on gender empowerment

Despite the legal instrument in place that advocate for gender empowerment there are also some social policies that have been introduced that seek to ensure gender empowerment.

a.      Affirmative Action

Affirmative action is a policy introduced by government meant to offer a slight advantage to previously marginalized groups so as to create a balance and equity. It was initially introduced to address the racial imbalances that existed in the colonial era but it was modified to also include women as a previously marginalized group. This policy has been a great success at tertiary institutions where the admission requirements for females are slightly relaxed compared to males.

b.      Parliamentary Proportional Representation

The Government of Zimbabwe also introduced a policy that promotes female politicians. A third of the seats in parliament are exclusively reserved for women whilst the remainder can be competed for by both males and females. This policy was lauded by many Feminist groups as a key step in female empowerment.

c.       Government Ministries

The government of Zimbabwe has created specific ministries to address the issue of gender empowerment. Through the Ministry of Women, Gender and Empowerment Creation, the government has shown vast commitment for the need to empower women in all facets of society. Through the Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprises the government has also spearheaded initiatives in the economic and business emancipation of women.

d.      Gender Commission

As part of the Zimbabwean Government’s efforts to meet its gender based objectives in terms of women emancipation, a gender commission has been set up. Once the commission starts operations it aims to ensure that there is no discrimination against gender lines and that women are emancipated. It seeks to be the vanguard of all legislation that relates to gender in Zimbabwe.

e.      Gender based Lobby Groups

There has also been an advent of gender based lobby groups in Zimbabwe which seek to realise their various perceived rights. Most of these lobby groups are Non Governmental Organisations. Some of the more prominent ones are Msasa Project (Female Rights), Girl Child Network (Girls’ Rights), Indigenous Business Women Organisation – IBWO (Lobbying for favourable policy for women in business), Gays and Lesbians Association of Zimbabwe (Homosexual Rights) and Padare Men’s Forum (Men’s Rights).

6.      Barriers to effective gender empowerment

In as much as there is legislation in place and social policies that are in favour of gender empowerment, there are also various barriers preventing the full implementation of gender empowerment.

a.      Culture

The culture of Zimbabwe has been constructed in such a way to make the country a Patriarchal society. Thus in as much as Acts of Parliament might be passed and Policies introduced most males feel they are superior to females and most females accept their inferior position in society. That social construction is not something that can be changed overnight and it will take quite some time to cultivate a new culture of empowered women.

b.      Religion

Zimbabwe is a dominantly Christian country with minority Islamist, Jewish and African traditionalist. All these religions emphasize on Patriarchy. Religion is usually a spiritual issue the world over where one feels attached to the teachings and usually deviation from religious teachings is frowned upon. This has meant that females submit themselves to the male patriarchs at the expense of their own emancipation.

c.       Bride Price (Lobola)

It is the view of most Zimbabwean males that since they are the ones paying the bride price then females should submit to their will. It is a view which almost equates females to commodities that are bought to be at the disposal of the buyer. Though the Zimbabwean majority views Lobola as a barrier observations in India where the bride’s family pays dowry, (a form of Lobola but paid by the female instead) indicate that the same patriarchal societies still exist.

d.      Morality

The idea of what is morally acceptable and what is not has also become a barrier to gender empowerment. By definition it was established above that gender has more to do with sexual orientation than biology. Gays and Lesbians have had their perceived right denied because of the idea that it is regarded as morally unacceptable.

7.      Conclusion

In light of the discussion one may conclude that the empowerment is necessary and is important for the development of society. The Zimbabwean Government can also be commended for putting in place various measures that encourage gender empowerment. The barriers to effective gender empowerment are socially constructed and they are hard if not out rightly impossible to overcome in the short term.

Reference list

1.      Armstrong, M. [2006]. A Handbook of Human Resources Management Practice. London; Kogan Page Limited.

2.      Chamberlin, J. [2013]. National Empowerment Centre Articles: A working Definition of Empowerment. Massachusetts; National Empowerment Centre.

3.      Constitution of Zimbabwe [2013]. Harare; Government Printers.

4.      Dunayevskaya, R. Luxemburg, R. [1991]. Women’s Liberation and Marx’s Philosophy of Revolution. Chicago; University of Illinois Press.

5.      F.A.O. [1997]. What is Gender? Paris; F.A.O.

6.      Hawkesworth, M.E. (2006). Globalization and Feminist Activism. New York; Rowman and Littlefield.

7.      Labour Act 28.01 [2006]. Harare; Government Printers.

8.      Newman, D.M. [2000]. Sociology: Explaining the architecture of everyday life. New Delhi; Sage Publications.

9.      Public Service Act 16.04 [2005]. Harare; Government Printers.

10.  Shepherd, J.M. [1999]. Sociology. London; Wordsworth Publishing Company.

11.  Waugh, D. [1996]. Geography: An Integrated Approach. Oxford; Oxford University Press.

12.  www.bolshevik.org/1917/no19fem.pdf