Organisational Analysis: Organisations are everywhere and come in many different forms. Their ubiquity and complexity means many of our social problems are organisational in nature and that is why we need to study organisations.

From the moment a person is born he/she begins the lifelong process of organizational interaction. A person is usually born in a hospital where he/she is subjected to the policies and processes of the hospital, released to a family, whether biological or foster, and subjected to the cultures and traditions of that family, grows up in a society whose norms one must adhere to and delinquent behaviour is addressed using social organizations and one will grow and die whilst virtually all his/ her life is an interaction with organizations. Learning processes, behavioural reinforcement or punishment is through organizations. Some go on to argue that human beings are like objects thrust into the world to be manipulated by organizational circumstances. It is in light of the above view that this discourse seeks to critically explore the assertion that, “Organizations are everywhere and come in many different forms. Their ubiquity and complexity means many of our social problems are organizational in nature and that is why we need to study organizations.” This discourse will define operational terms, explore the social problem of unemployment at length and that of domestic violence briefly, highlight how these social problems are organizational, use theoretical approaches to establish how the organizations operate and create the social problems and ways of reinforcing the organizations to ameliorate the social problems. A personal perspective will conclude the paper.

Scott (1995) defines organisations as social structures created by individuals to support the collaborative pursuit of certain goals. Robbins and Barnwell (2012) state that an organization is a consciously coordinated social entity with a relatively identifiable boundary that functions on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or a set of goals. Silverman (1970) notes that the definitions of organizations have the aspect of goals, formality and/or integration. However, for the purpose of this discourse an organisations shall be defined as any social structures, formal or informal, that are created by individuals in pursuit of shared values.

The social problems faced by individuals in society may stem from a single source organization or a plethora of formal organisations which are interlinked by their multiplicity of interactions which in turn culminates in the problems indigenous to one organization being replicated in many others. Unemployment is one such social problem that has bedevilled Zimbabwe. With an unemployment rate of 95% (Worstall, 2017), Zimbabwe has one of the highest unemployment rates in the world. This has led to a lot of other offshoot social problems like crime, prostitution, poverty, migration, HIV and AIDS, discordant families and many other social ills. Thus if the social problem of unemployment continues unabated it has the capacity to degenerate into a social catastrophe whose effects will be unsurmountable. It is thus important to solve the problem of unemployment at its grassroots levels to avoid future problems of an exacerbated magnitude.

The Government of Zimbabwe is a macro organization which is composed of numerous micro organizations whose sum make up the Government. It is therefore imperative that when the Government is analysed as a source of social problems, its constituent organisations be identified. Some of the organisations which are microcosms of the macrocosm of Government are political parties, President, Legislature, Judiciary, Ministers, Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe and Government departments. The reason for focusing on the Government instead of a single constituent organisation is the fact that the roles of the constituent organisations at times interlink and overlap and it would appear frivolous to attribute all challenges to a single constituent organization as compared to attributing the challenges to Government. This follows the Gestalt Principle that, ‘the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’ (Koffka as cited by Bruce, Green and Georgeson, 1996. P.110)

The Government of Zimbabwe through the ruling ZANU PF party and Legislature instituted a fast track land reform in a bid to consolidate the support of the electorate from the threat of the pro-labour MDC party in the YES/NO Referendum of 2000. The outcome of that referendum was a No vote which signified a victory for MDC. ZANU PF then intensified its land redistribution strategy culminating in rubber stamping the land reform through a ruling by the late Chief Justice Godfrey Chidyausiku, after the constructive dismissal/retirement of Retired Chief Justice Anthony Gubbay in 2001 (www.pindula.co.zw). This was in preparation for the 2002 elections. These sequence of events heralded the dawn of unemployment in Zimbabwe as farm workers of former white commercial farmers became unemployed as the new land owners had neither financial nor technical capacity to utilise the land as the previous owners did. This had a ripple effect as downstream industries that relied on agricultural produce like Cashel Valley, Cairns Foods, Victoria Foods, Blue Ribbon Industries, Grain Marketing Board, COTTCO and David Whitehead among others started facing viability challenges and resorted to retrenchments. This was the advent of high unemployment in Zimbabwe.

In a retaliatory manner the MDC sought to make the country ungovernable by calling for sanctions from Britain, United States of America, The European Union, Australia and Canada in 2002 (UK Telegraph, 14 January 2002). ZANU PF after 2003 tried to shore up local support as the momentum of the land reform had subsided and the negative effects of the land reform and sanctions were now apparent. They did this through the indigenisation policy which led to investment flight, further increasing unemployment. The policy was later signed into an Act of Parliament in 2008 (www.loc.gov). There are accusations and counter accusations between opposition and the ruling parties on who is to blame for some of the company closures and deals that failed to materialise during the tenure of the inclusive Government (2009-2013) chief among them the ZISCO Steel – ESSER deal (Chronicle, July 5 2016). These events though they were of a political nature and arose from the institution of Government as a whole, their effects transcended economic sectors and social structures to result in the current problem of unemployment.

The second social problem that is greatly affecting the Zimbabwean society is domestic violence. This social problem has far reaching consequences and has led to consequence problems like murders, body harm, disfigurement, and when solutions are offered by formal organisations it leads to incarceration, divorce and broken families. The problem seems to be stemming from the family unit as an organization. The family unit in Zimbabwe has evolved over time. The advent or technology, children’s rights, women’s rights, neo-feminism and anti-patriarchy legislation have drastically changed the value systems, cultures and norms of families. However, the differential acceptance rate and lack of consensus gives rise to disagreements which at times culminate in domestic violence due to perceived irreconcilability by one or more members of the family organisation. Thus, though bordering informality, the family unit is an organisation that has given rise to the social problem of domestic violence of late.

The bounded rationality theory of Herbert Simon as explained by Barros (2010) state that individuals seek a satisficing decision, one that satisfies and suffices for the decision maker. This holds true for the Zimbabwean Government as the organisational root cause of unemployment in Zimbabwe. The decisions that they have been making that led to high unemployment levels were satisfactory and sufficing at the time being as they achieved intended political objectives. They were also time bound by the impending elections in almost all of the scenarios they made these major decisions. The Government of Zimbabwe also seemed to have borrowed from Maslow (1987) in that they sought to motivate the electorate by providing them with physiological needs, land for shelter and land for food. However, adopting the whole hierarchy on needs was not sustainable hence the current high levels of unemployment the country faces.

The family and the Government of Zimbabwe as the root causal organisations seems to follow the trajectory of Henry Mintzberg’s (1985) theorising of organisations as a political arenas expounded by Karademir and Karademir (2015). Mintzberg (1985) describes politics as having the ability to capture a whole or part of an organisation, giving rise to what he termed ‘the political arena.’ This is a scenario where various factors are at play where one tries to push his/her personal agenda against that of a perceived rival. In the case of the Government of Zimbabwe the power dynamics that were at play entailed to elections and the need to sway the electorate. In the family set-up the power dynamics that are at play relate to how the father, mother or children perceive they are being treated according to their perceived importance as indoctrinated by their inclination towards either patriarchy, neo-feminism or children’s activism. 

The problem of unemployment whose root cause lie in the Government organization can be solved by trying to establish a social structure of Government as a negotiated order. Schulze (1986) who is a Symbolic Interactionist Sociologist argued that organisations should be formed on the basis of negotiations through different individuals. These negotiations are believed to be able to ameliorate the social problems that arise from the Government. A precedent was set in Zimbabwe during the period between 2009 and 2013 when the Government of Zimbabwe was a negotiated order named the Government of National Unity (GNU). This negotiated order led to economic stabilisation and the political antics that the political parties had been exhibiting prior to this period stopped and at times sought to be reversed. This is a clear indication that viewing organisations as a negotiated order, and forming Government out of negotiation, would result in solving the social problem of unemployment. Operationalising the new Zimbabwean constitution of 2013 that arose as a result of consultations and a referendum will also lead to the amelioration of the unemployment social problem as the constitution is a documentation of the negotiated order of Government as a macro organisation.

The social problem of domestic violence needs to be rectified by application of the view of organisations as cultural contexts. This brings to the fore an acknowledgement that at times members of the family organization fail to adapt externally and integrate internally. Organisations as a cultural context entails that new ways of doing things should have worked so well enough to be considered valid and to be gradually taught to new members as a correct way to feel, think and perceive. Thus if the concepts of patriarchy, neo-feminism and children’s rights are gradually taught, the family organisation will not encounter cultural shock which results in disagreements, confrontations and domestic violence. This would help in ameliorating the social problem of domestic violence. If this concept does not work then the idea of punishment to offenders as negative reinforcement should be considered in line of Michel Foucault’s approach to power, panoptic and the prison system.

Given the above discourse it is the view of the writer that the social problems being faced are organisational in nature, but they do not stem from a single organisation. Rather they stem from a multiplicity of organisations which are interrelated and which interface with each other such that at times it is not apparent were the true sphere of influence of one organisation ends. Thus the attempt to solve the organisational root cause to problems usually transcends organisations and the effects of such might actually in turn solve other social problems that might not have been initially targeted.

Reference List

Barros, G. (2010). Herbert A. Simon and the concept of rationality: boundaries and procedures. Sao Paulo, Brazilian Journal of Political Economy Vol. 30 no.3. ISSN 0101-3157

Bruce, V., Green, P.R., and Georgeson, M. (1996). Visual Perception: Physiology, Psychology and Ecology (3^rd Edition). New York, Psychology Press.

Butcher, T. (2002). UK Telegraph 14 January 2002 www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/4180184/South-Africa-urged-to-use-sanctions-against-Mugabe.html Accessed 05-04-2018

Chronicle. (July 5 2016). Prof Ncube blamed for Zisco deal collapse… Indian investor was broke, Speaker of Parliament says. www.chronicle.co.zw/prof-ncube-blamed-for-zisco-deal-collapse-indian-investor-was-broke-speaker-of-parliament-says/

Foucault, M. Discipline and Punishment: The Birth of The Prison. New York, Vintage Books.

Karademir, M. and Karademir, A.C. (2015). Political Behaviour and Mintzberg’s Political Games: Example of Organised Criminal Institutions with Godfather Film Analysis. European Scientific Journal May 2015 Edition vol.11, No.14 ISSN:1857-7881

Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3^rd ed.). New Delhi, Pearson Education.

Robbins, S.P. and Barnwell, N. (2012). Organisational Theory: Concepts and Cases, (5^th Edition). San Diego, Pearson Educational

Scott, W.R. (1995). Institutions and Organisations. Ideas, Interests and Identities. New York, Sage Publishers.

Silverman, D. (1970). The Theory of Organisations: A Sociological Framework. London, Heinemann Educational.

Worstall, T. (2017). With 95% Unemployment Rate Robert Mugabe Insists Zimbabwe is not Fragile. www.forbes.com Accessed 05-04-2018

www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/zimbabwe-indigenization-and-empowerment-act

www.pindula.co.zw/Anthony_Gubbay Accessed 05-04-2018

Deconstructing the ‘Aporias’ of Employee Codes of Conduct: The Zimbabwean Experience.

Introduction

The management of industrial relations in Zimbabwe using the employee codes of conduct has always been an area of great sensitivity, bone of contention and at times source of confusion. This is attributable to the aporias nature of employee codes of conduct. This paper seeks to review the contribution of Maunganidze [2014] to the deconstruction of the aporias nature of the employee codes of conduct.

Aporias, as adopted from Derrida, refers to a difficulty, impasse, or point of doubt or indecision. Deconstruction entails undoing or dismantling the individual elements around the whole concept of employee codes of conduct to try and establish the what, how and why of employee codes of conduct. The article under review is based on a qualitative analysis of five Zimbabwean State owned enterprises. The central argument of the paper is that there are blind spots, tensions and contradictions between the logic and rhetoric of codes of conduct and their practice that render the management of employee discipline an organizational dichotomy. Strikingly the predicament of employee codes of conduct is both structural and institutional and there is abundant evidence of partial or partisan execution particularly by employers. The article goes to argue that these Employee Codes of conduct are then rendered invisible and ineffectual if they are not coupled by sanctions and assimilated into daily organizational practice.

Maunganidze [2014] traces the origins of the Employee Codes of Conduct to the post-ESAP era which brought with it a multiplicity of challenges viewed as anti-labour. The Labour Act 28.01 was thus formulated to address the plethora of challenges that were vestiges of previous anti-labour programs. It was meant to be applicable to private companies. However, the meta-categorization of private companies need to be viewed with skepticism as government created state owned enterprises and Authorities which are private companies by law and yet their institutional ideology and control is still statist.

Theoretic Views

Systematic Modernism, just like a functionalist approach, view employee codes of conduct as serving a unitary purpose of creating harmony in the society in the creation and sustenance of organizational order and stability. Codes in this view become a management tool of suppressing organizational tensions. Critical Discourse Analysis is inspired by the concepts of knowledge and power propounded by Michel Foucault. Oppression in organizations is largely invisible as it encoded within institutions and discourses that appear as instruments of knowledge and not as sites of power. Codes of conduct should be understood according to power relations, circumscribing their origin, purpose and application. Postmodern deconstruction also adds another theoretical perspective as it views codes of conduct not as a symbol of harmonious industrial relations. It looks at the text interpretation which leads to multi meanings depending on interpretation and objective to be achieved. This renders the employee codes relative and not absolute in their truths.

Significance

The article is of vast significance as it deconstructs the employee codes of conduct in such an explicit way that it gives both academics and professionals an insight into both the subtle and express power dynamics at play. It gives the background and offers challenges as to why the wholesome adaptation of the employee codes of conduct might appear to fail in yielding desired results. This it argues that it is due to unknown or hidden facts of why the code was formed, it could be silently achieving its objectives which are not expressly stated. The code of conduct is also a prescription to employee relations challenges that may be bedeviling the organization and a promise which actors to the employment relationship can always depend on.

The discourse brings to the fore the aporias nature of employee codes of conduct especially when management flagrantly circumvent the provisions of codes of conduct and use unorthodox means to achieve desired results which might not be provided for by the employee codes of conduct in the prevailing circumstances. Whilst employee codes of conduct try to bring down everything in writing issues of integrity are difficult to deduce in writing. Even though if one manages to deduce the employee codes of conduct in writing a question arises on whether ethics and values can be taught or not. Such a question brings to the fore the challenge of employee codes trying to establish harmonious employee relations premised on mutual trust when values like trustworthy itself cannot be taught. Work to rule entails strict and rigid adherence to set provisions and by so doing when it comes to the application of employee codes of conduct there are far reaching negative consequences to the organization. Thus it becomes a dilemma or aporias in that strict adherence is negative and non-adherence is punishable.

An interesting situation, as observed in the case organizations, of old employee codes of conduct that have outlived their applicability to the dynamic business environment being still in use is of vast importance it brings cognizance of the fact that employee codes of conduct should evolve with the environment to suit the ever-changing needs of business to avoid obsolescence.

 

Conclusion

It would be imperative to note that the trajectory of the article juxtaposes Maunganidze [2014] as a Marxist theorist whose main argument is premised on the ideology that those who own and control the means of production use the employee codes of conduct to further their agendas at the expense of the oppressed, who in the article appear to be the employees. I would recommend this article as a must-read to both organizational colleagues and academics as it provides a historical insight of where codes of conduct emanated from, the subtle power dynamics at play in the application, as well as the challenges associated with trying to teach codes to employees. It also provides a Marxist theoretical framework to the deconstruction of the aporias nature of employee codes of conduct in the Zimbabwean context.

Marketing and Technology

Marketing is regarded by a myriad of corporate professionals and academics alike as an integral part of a business organization as it is the one overly responsible for converting all prior processes into money (Morgan, 2012). Technological innovations on the other hand are also viewed as key in shaping up the trajectory of the current and future business marketing strategies (Jordan, 2017). It is against this background that this paper seeks to explore the authenticity of the assertion that, “In any business the marketing aspect plays a pivotal role in the success of that particular business and should embrace technology to be able to understand the new generation customer and position the organization in the economy. The modern marketer must understand the new customer who has changed with technology.” This paper will look briefly into operational definitions of technology, marketing and marketing technology. An argument in support of the above assertion will be given followed by an antithesis, both of which will be supported by examples to substantiate the arguments. A personal analysis of the discourse will conclude the paper.

Marketing can be defined as the management process in which goods or services move from being a concept to the customer and involves the product, price, place and promotional strategy (Business Dictionary, 2018). Marketing involves basically four factors that are interrelated which are communication, goods and/or services, money and information (Kotler, 2002). Technology is defined as a manner of accomplishing a task especially using technical processes, methods, or knowledge (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2018). Marketing technology can be defined as the tools and platforms used by sales and marketing organizations to effectively complete their duties (Quarck, 2017).

 (Kotler, 2002) argues that the changes happening in the world are taking place at an alarmingly accelerated rate that organizations have to adapt or face a bleak future. In that vein he argues that technological orientation coupled by a global outlook and deregulation will ensure the survival and success of the current and future business entity. Thus based on that argument it becomes evident that business entities cannot remain stagnant in a dynamic business environment, they have to be innovative and adaptive to avoid Marketing strategic decay and strategic obsolescence. Hence the assertion under review can thus said to be true.

Marketing technology is of importance in conducting research and development of products as the new customer is regarded as techno savvy. Traditionally market research and development entailed paper questionnaire and moving around of people over a large geographical area, which was both time consuming and expensive. In a rapidly dynamic business environment time is of great essence as technological advancement call for real-time responses to market demands. Due to marketing technology, marketing data collection, interpretation and analysis tools like Survey Monkey, SWOT, SPSS, Tableau and many others are greatly being used. These ensure timeous market research and response. Therefore, technology plays an important role in the understanding of the new customer.

Communication technology is also a trend that has been embraced the world over transcending all aspects of life. Thus for the modern marketer to remain relevant it is imperative that he or she makes effective use of information communication technology in order to be responsive to the needs of customers. In Zimbabwe the postal and mailing system is no longer as efficient as it was before and using regular mail for marketing purposes has become archaic. With the postal system taking anything between two to three weeks to deliver mail, information at times loses relevance with time. In response Zimbabwean marketers have adopted the use of international trends by using cookies and mailing lists to disseminate information to the new customer. Cookies are unsolicited pop-ups that appear on computer and phone screens when one is connected to the internet, whilst a mailing list is an email database of customers or potential customers who would have willingly subscribed to receive communication. This ensures that the new customer is kept abreast with information relevant to the business entity or product. Thus technology is key in the quest of the modern marketer to communicate with the new customer and ensure organizational continuity and success.

Technology has also become useful when it comes to information availability. Information availability entails access to relevant information as and when needed. Most companies have now adopted the use of websites were all relevant company, product and service industry can be easily available. Of importance though is also the availability of the Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) page where responses to popular questions are posted such that customers have ready access to information. Most companies in Zimbabwe have also embraced the concept of hotlines and call centers so as to answer unique questions which might not have been provided for on FAQ pages. Econet Wireless, Telone and Netone all now have a 24-hour call Centre to allow their customers to communicate with them any time of the day regarding their products and services and address any grievances if there are any. Hence Information Communication Technology has become of cast utility to the modern marketer in trying to understand the new customer.

The embracing of technology in advertising is also key in the need of the modern marketer to better position the business entity and its products and services. The purpose of advertising is to firstly create awareness (of the products or services), secondly create interest in the customer to know more about the product, thirdly generate a desire by the customer to want or need the product and fourthly incite action to purchase the product. Research indicates that in 2017 people on average spent 135 minutes on social media (Statista, 2018). Marketing technology now thus plays an important role in advertising due to the advent of social media and e-platforms. Social media allows for companies to advertise their products through groups, sponsored pages or even social media for business (Solis, 2012). WhatsApp and Facebook social media applications have a number of marketing groups, platforms and corporate pages for the purposes of advertising. Social media presence is now key in advertising as most of the customers or potential customers have a social media presence. Therefore, the modern marketer has to embrace social media technology in order to best advertise to the new customer.

The modern marketer needs to incorporate technology in product and service distribution in order to reach out to the new customer.  This entails having options for the new customer to make remote or online purchases and orders and not necessarily have to visit the physical store. International companies that have succeeded using this model include Amazon, Alibaba Express, eBay and Walmart. In Zimbabwe telecommunication companies, Zimbabwe Electricity Transmission and Distribution Company (ZETDC), and Hammer and Tongues Online Shopping Mall have embraced distribution technology in their efforts position their organizations with the new customer. This gives flexibility of purchase without the restrictions of shop operating hours and without having to physically visit the shop. Given the flexibility of distribution that technology brings, it thus becomes important for the modern marketer to embrace it to ensure business success.

The new customer is someone who enjoys technological flexibility in making payments. Flexibility in making payments in this instance entails the availability of various ways to initiate a payment other than the physical exchange of hard currency. The physical exchange of money requires travelling by either the marketer or the customer (Byrnes, 2015). By embracing payment technology such as mobile money (Telecash, Ecocash, Netcash, One money or M-Pesa), PayPal, Credit card (Visa, MasterCard, American Express, Electron), Cryptocurrency (Bitcoin, ethereum, Petrocoin) and Google Pay, the new customer is given flexibility of payment and is able to remotely pay for goods or services. This thus means that embracing technology in payments would assist the modern marketer in the quest to meet the demands of the new customer.

A key incentive to the use of marketing technology is that it is cheap and greatly convenience (Patel, 2016). Financial bottom-lines are key performance indicators of any business organization. Thus by embracing marketing technology a business entity can significantly cut on its marketing costs thereby unlocking financial resources to be directed to other projects and ensuring organizational success. Convenience brought to both the modern marketer and the new customer by the adoption of marketing technology is reciprocally of mutual benefit to both parties as it brings convenience to both. Therefore, Marketing technology is pivotal to the success of a business entity.

However, the use of marketing technology might niche the market and reduce the overall market share of the business entity. This is because not all customers are techno savvy and the traditional customer might be excluded by marketing that is techno-centric. For example, some people in rural areas of Zimbabwe might not have technologically advanced gadgets or might not be techno savvy enough to be able to benefit or utilize marketing technologies. This thus means they might have to buy products or services which are marketed in traditional ways.

In light of the above discourse it is apparent that the embracing of marketing technology is pivotal for business success and positions the organization such that the modern marketer is better able to understand the new customer. This juxtaposes the embracing of marketing technology as a panacea to some of the traditional marketing related problems business entities face in trying to create a successful marketing strategy.

 

 

 

 

References

Business Dictionary. (2018, April 27). Marketing. Retrieved from Business Dictionary: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/marketing.html

Byrnes, N. (2015, January 26). New Technologies Can Change Payments and the Economy. Retrieved from Massachusettes Institute of Technology Technology Review: https://www.technologyreview.com/s/534046/new-technologies-can-change-payments-and-the-economy/

Jordan, T. (2017, March 27). The Content Strategist. Retrieved from The 3 Most Important Reasons Marketers Use Marketing Technology: https://contently.com/strategist/2017/03/27/3-reasons-use-marketing-technology/

Kotler, P. (2002). Marketing Management Mellenium Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary. (2018, April 27). Technology. Retrieved from Merriam-Webster Dictionary: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/technology

Morgan, N. A. (2012). Marketing and business performance. Academy of Marketing Science.

Patel, R. (2016, November 7). 5 Dirt Cheap Yet Effective Marketing Strategies for Startups. Retrieved from Marketheed: http://www.marketheed.com/blog/5-dirt-cheap-yet-effective-marketing-strategies-for-startups

Quarck. (2017). WHAT IS MARKETING TECHNOLOGY? LEARN ABOUT THE MEANING, METHODS AND STRATEGIES FOR MARKETING TECHNOLOGY. Retrieved from Docurated: http://www.docurated.com/knowledge/what-is-marketing-technology/

Solis, B. (2012, September 10). Are you connecting with your new generation of customers? Retrieved from Brian Solis: http://www.briansolis.com/2012/09/are-you-connecting-with-your-new-generation-of-customers-generation-c/

Statista. (2018, February). Statista. Retrieved from Daily time spent on social networking by internet users worldwide from 2012 to 2017 (in minutes): https://www.statista.com/statistics/433871/daily-social-media-usage-worldwide/

Corporate Imitation

The article focused on why business firms imitate each other and based the arguments on two perspectives. The first being some firms are assumed to be bastions of information, thus the firms are imitated based on the assumption that whatever they are doing must be as a result of a well-informed thought process. The second view-point is that imitation arises out of the need to cancel or reduce the competitive gap by imitating what the market leaders are doing. The article then focuses on the corporate and economic negative implications of imitation, though acknowledgement is given that there are positives derivatives of imitation. The article sought to amplify the role a toxi-turbulent business environment in the creation of strategic drifts, strategic collisions and strategic obsolescence which then gives rise and corporate justification to imitation.   Whereas the information based theories and the rivalry based theories argue that imitation is intentional, the Socio-ecological theories postulates that mimic isomorphism is as a result of a reaction to the same environmental conditions that would then apparently appear as imitation. Hence the reaction of two or more organisations to environment stimuli may be pseudo imitation simply because a similar stimuli is bound to produce a similar response.

The article is two-pronged in its analysis in that it analyses the issue of imitation from both an economic kaleidoscope as well as from a socio-ecological perspective.  From an economical perspective, the analysis of imitation goes beyond the visible aspects but delves deeper into the salient aspects of an organization. In instances of tacit or complex behaviour, the process of imitation will be impeded. For example in the Zimbabwean Mobile Money industry Ecocash is generally believed to be the market leader by revenue as well as transactions. Though Telecash, One Money and Getcash have tried to imitate Ecocash the outcomes are not synonymous with those of Ecocash. As aptly captured by the article some attempts to imitate may be fatal as is now the case of Getcash which has not operated viably since inception as they could not imitate to totality the business model of Ecocash (the operational market leader for the purpose of this article) and is now being disposed of by Brainworks Capital Pvt Ltd. Investments would have been heavily but narrowly focused such that profitability in never achieved due to the failure to analyse  the in-depth aspects of an organization to be imitated.

Whereas information based theories and rivalry based theories argue that organisations imitate out of information and rivalry, socio-ecological theories postulate that organisation prefer experimental learning to imitation. However, experimental learning is not conducive in a highly dynamic business environment like that of Zimbabwe where adaptation has to be imminent in order to survive in the toxi-turbulent economic environment. If a business organisation invests in experimental learning chances are high though not in totality that by the time experimental learning is complete the prevailing environmental conditions will be different from those that prevailed prior to the experimental learning.

Vecchiato (2012) argues that due to the dynamic business environment, strategic foresight becomes problematic and he advocates for reactive strategies. These reactive strategies require an imminent reaction to the prevailing environment. These reactive strategies substantiate the need for mimic strategies as it takes a comparatively shorter period of time to mimic as compared to experimental learning and research and development.

This article is of vast essence to organisational analysis as it offers an in-depth analysis into imitation for both information purposes and competitive rivalry. An important lesson to be learnt is the need to create a highly competent, dynamic and complex workforce that is difficult to imitate such that an organisation is able to derive strategic competitive advantage from its Human Resources strategy. The need for a stringent strategical confidentiality policy was also brought to the fore by the article as it was revealed through information based theories that corporate information might provide the basis for competitor firms to imitate the organisation and diminish competitive advantage.

In light of the above review one may conclude that then article provides an insight into why and how organisations mimic other organisations. It also provides an appreciation of the challenges associated with imitation especially when it involves complex systems and behaviours and where information is not readily available. The article though not explicit it helps in the shaping of Human Resources strategy such that the probability of an organisation being imitated to totality is reduced.

Referencing

Vecchiato, R. (2012). Strategic foresight and environmental uncertainty: a research agenda. VOL. 14 NO. 5 2012, pp. 387-400, Q Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1463-6689

Leadership Styles and Some Great Leaders

Leadership is a broad yet novel concept in academia even though it has been in existence since time immemorial in practice. There are multiple types of leadership styles, but this research will focus on five which are Autocratic, Democratic, Laissez faire, Transactional and fiTransformational leadership styles. The five leaders whom the author of this paper felt greatly influences him as an individual and aspiring leader are Jesus Christ, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi, Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini, Professor Rungano Jonas Zvobgo and Robert Gabriel Mugabe. This paper will begin by defining what leadership is in both the Western and Eastern context, and give a description of leaders, their leadership styles and how this author benefits and feels inspired by the leaders.

Leadership

Leadership is defined as leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal (Ward, 2018). This is can either be in the social, business or political contexts. This leadership definition captures the essentials of being able to inspire others and being prepared to do so. Effective leadership is based upon ideas (whether original or borrowed), but won't happen unless those ideas can be communicated to others in a way that engages them enough to act as the leader wants them to act. Put even more simply, the leader is the inspiration and director of the action. He or she is the person in the group that possesses the combination of personality and leadership skills that makes others want to follow his or her direction. Leadership is a social influence process in which the leader seeks the voluntary participation of subordinates in an effort to reach organization goals (Omolayo, 2007).  According to DuBrin (2001) as cited in Mukkelli (2013) leadership style is the relatively consistent pattern of behavior that characterizes a leader. A common fact among leaders and leadership is that there must be a shared goal to be met and there must be followers who share the need to achieve that shared goal.

Jesus Christ

The leader who has, and continues to inspire and influence this author is Jesus Christ. Jesus Christ was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the central figure of Christianity. Most Christians believe he is the incarnation of God the Son and the awaited Messiah (Christ) prophesied in the Old Testament by the prophet Isaiah. Jesus Christ is believed to have been born in Nazareth in Galilee in the Middle East of the Virgin Mary conceived through the Holy Spirit.

Jesus Christ practiced the servant leadership style. Having born of humble parents, with a father who was a carpenter, Jesus Christ sought to acquire knowledge at the tender age of twelve. At twelve years of age when he was taken to Jerusalem for the Passover festival Jesus Christ stayed behind questioning and quizzing men of wisdom and understanding in the temple(Luke 2:41-47). The insatiable appetite for knowledge and wisdom is the same appetite that this author shares both in pursuit of knowledge and wisdom as well as in questioning status quos. This has helped the author in the acquisition of both knowledge and wisdom.

Jesus Christ was a determined and resolute being who saw to completion the things he would have started. Even as he fasted for forty days and forty nights in the wilderness and was tempted by Lucifer to turn rocks into bread so as to quench his appetite he remain steadfast in his fasting. He also refused to warship Lucifer in exchange for all the riches in this world. This tenacious and resolute aspect of Jesus Christ inspires the author in that corruption is a scourge that has taken over most leaders the world over and when one reflects on the experiences of Jesus Christ then one feels motivated to remain resolute to ethical principles even in the face of easy pickings in financial gain.

Jesus Christ was a servant leadership who always led by example in whatever he did. At the age of thirty he was baptized by John the Baptist as a gesture of rebirth and the cleansing of sin even though he was perfect and without sin. He washed the feet of his disciples as a demonstration of what they ought to do. Even at his crucification at Golgotha, Jesus Christ took the time to forgive those who had crucified him. At his death a soldier exclaimed that they had indeed killed the son of God. Jesus Christ as a leader transformed the world as we know it today. He inspired Christianity as a religious movement and that juxtaposes him as a transformational leader as well. The most inspirational quote of Jesus Christ that greatly influences this author is John 13:34 “A new commandment I give unto you, yea love one another as I have loved you. Yeah love one another.”

Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi

Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi better known to the western world as Colonel Muammar Gaddafi was born on 1 September 1969 in Sirte Libya and was murdered on 20 October 2011 in Sirte Libya. Colonel Gaddafi dropped out of the University of Benghazi were he was studying Geography in order to pursue a military career. He was an avid follower, protégé and ally of the Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser. By the age of twenty seven when he was an army captain heled a bloodless couple which led to the removal of the monarch and his installation as the first democratic leader of Libya as well as his subsequent promotion from Caption to Colonel. His success in leading a bloodless coup places Colonel Muammar Gaddafi as a leader who respected the sanctity of human life. As an autocratic leader his respect of human life differentiates him from other autocratic leaders who were known to be blood thirsty such as Adolf Hitler of the Jewish Holocaust, Kim Jong In and his firing squad, and Robert Gabriel Mugabe and the Gukurahundi.

Colonel Muammar Gaddafi practiced a leadership style that we autocratic in a transformational manner and yet people centered as well. During his reign at the helm of Libyan politics Colonel Muammar Gaddafi transformed Libya from being a low income earning country to being an upper middle class economy. Under the stewardship of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi Libya become the owner of all the big companies in Libya and the wealth was distributed among the Libyan citizenry. During the reign of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi Libya was the best country in the world by comparative standards as Libya offered $50000.00 to newlyweds, $5000.00 to mothers who would have given birth, free health care, free education, vehicle purchases subsidized by 50%, unemployment benefit equivalent to the salary of someone in fulltime employment in the field, free electricity and a monthly oil allowance to all citizens.

Colonel Muammar Gaddafi was a unifier advocating and championing socialism throughout Africa. At the time of his murder he was advocating for a United States of Africa (Al Jazeera, 2011). The achievements of Colonel Gaddafi are better viewed in comparison with other countries only then can one conclude that Libya was the best country in the modern world under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi than any country has ever been in the comparable period. The author’s favorite quotes by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi are, “Let the people of the free world know that we could have bargained over and sold out our cause in return for a personal, secure and stable life. We received many offers to this effect but we chose to be at the vanguard of the confrontation as a badge of duty and honor.” And “Man’s freedom is lacking if someone else controls what he needs, for need may result in man’s enslavement of man.” (Asser, 2011).

Imam Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini

Imam Sayyid Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini known to the western imperialists as Ayatollah Khomeini was a Shia Muslim Cleric in Tehran, Iran. Imam Khomeini was born on 24 September 1902 and died on 3 June 1989. Imam Khomeini was a marja or source of emulation in Shia Islam. He was also a Mujtahid or Faqih (An expert of Islamic law) in addition to authoring more than forty books. He is however renowned for being the First Supreme Leader of Iran and to have led the political revolution in Iran that saw the overthrow of the last Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in 1979. Imam Khomeini was different from the other Muslim religious leaders who are radical and intolerant of other religious groups. Imam Khomeini was tolerant of other religions, other forms of Islam and even criticism.

Imam Khomeini was a selfless leader who after successfully leading the Iranian Revolution gave executive power to run the Iranian state to the council whilst he took a predominantly religious and advisory role to government. The charisma of Imam Khomeini ensured that he was so popular among Iranians in particular and Muslims in general that he was affectionately known as Grand Ayatollah even though his official tittle remain Imam which in itself remains a huge Islamic Leadership Honorary tittle. The selflessness of Imam Khomeini as well as his tolerance of others inspires this author as an aspiring leader to be tolerant of diversity.

Professor Rungano Jonas Zvobgo

When the talk of learned people in Zimbabwe come up there is one family that stands out shoulders above the rest, which is the Zvobgo family of Masvingo. So educated are the family that at one point Edson Zvobgo claimed that if the family’s academic certificates are to be burnt a meal can actually be cooked. My greatest academic inspiration happens to be Professor Rungano Jonas Zvobgo a Zimbabwean academic and administrator.

Professor Zvobgo has had vast experience in the higher and tertiary education sector in Zimbabwe. He is a well published scholar with numerous book, journal articles as well as papers presented at conferences. Professor Zvobgo has won a plethora of awards for both his writing as well as his administration skills. Professor Zvobgo has won local, National, Regional as well as international recognition for his sterling work as an academic (www.gzu.ac.zw).

Professor Zvobgo is a transformational leader who is result oriented and endeavors to transform the area under his jurisdiction. When he arrived at Great Zimbabwe University in 2012 as the Vice Chancellor, professor Zvobgo introduced a plethora of transformational changes that changed the kaleidoscope of the university and shaped a new trajectory. He transformed Great Zimbabwe University from being a minor state University to becoming one of the fast growing universities in Zimbabwe offering a wide range of degree programs, using the multi campus system.

Professor Zvobgo inspires the author in that he is a charismatic academic leader who not only inspires vision, but sees the achievement of that vision. As a leader Professor Zvobgo is a compassionate, humble and accessible leader as the author benefited from his compassionate discretion during his undergraduate studies at Great Zimbabwe University. The author seeks to borrow from the education of Professor Zvobgo as well as his charismatic ability and transformational leadership style.

Robert Gabriel Mugabe

Former Zimbabwean president Robert Gabriel Mugabe is a leader of extreme distinction. He was born on the 21^st of February 1924. He served as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe from 1980 to 1987 after which he assumed the presidency. He was unseated from power during a coup-de-tart which was orchestrated by his then estranged deputy president Emmerson Dambudzo Mnangagwa whom he had fired from the vice presidency.

He is the most educated man ever to become a president. In his tenure as a leader of Zimbabwe, President Mugabe has won a number of local and international awards including getting honorary degrees from almost every continent and getting Knighthood from the Queen of England. Robert Mugabe was a fearless leader who stood by principle and upheld both the will of his people as well as the African value of Ubuntu. His greatest achievement which was his greatest undoing in the face of the Western imperialists was redistributing Zimbabwean land which had been in the control of the white minority twenty years after the attainment of independence.

President Robert Mugabe was also resolute in denouncing homosexuality. This resolute denouncement of homosexuality was in the spirit of Ubuntu where sexual relations between man and man or woman and woman are a taboo. President Robert Mugabe was an awe-inspiring charismatic leader whose speeches had all the hallmarks of a hypnotic oratory prowess. President Robert Mugabe was not a mere pushover, standing his ground on indigenization, beneficiation of minerals and natural resources, neo-colonialism in international institutions like the United Nations and the big brother attitude of Britain, America and their western allies in meddling in the internal affairs of sovereign countries which has led to political instability.

The author feels greatly inspired and motivated by President Mugabe’s level of education. His unwavering and resolute resolve in matters that he perceived as fundamental principles. The importance he placed on education as a leader which ultimately led Zimbabwe to be regarded as the African country with the highest literacy is not a mean feat. The ability he had to tame enemies and use counter intelligence to either absorb enemies in the system or dispose of them showed him as a tactician par excellence.

Conclusion

Given the above discussion of the five leaders that inspire the author, it can be concluded that the author aspires to be a political leader with a strong academic background. The understudying of world leaders who either have a politically rich leadership style and/or a strong positive attitude and aptitude for learning juxtaposes the author into following the footsteps of the men he views in high esteem.

 

 

 

References

Al Jazeera (2011) Profile: Muammar Gaddafi www.aljazeera.com/english/amp/indepth/2011/02/201122117565923629.html

Mukkelli, V. (Mar. - Apr. 2013). Comprehensive Leadership Qualities of All Time Great Leader A Unique Role Model for Leaders of All Times. IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM) e-ISSN: 2278-487X, p-ISSN: 2319-7668. Volume 9, Issue 5 PP 70-79 www.iosrjournals.org

Omolayo, B. (2007). Effect of Leadership Style on Job-Related Tension and Psychological Sense of Community in Work Organizations: A Case Study of Four Organizations in Lagos State, Nigeria, Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology, 4(2).

The Holly Bible (2013) Kings James Version. Utah, Intellectual Reserves Inc.

Vermes, G. (1981). Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels. Philadelphia: First Fortress. pp. 20, 26, 27, 29. ISBN 978-0-8006-1443-0.

Ward, S. (2018). What is Leadership? And can you learn to be a good leader. www.thebalancesmb.com/leadership-defination/

www.gzu.ac.zw/vice-chancellor/

 

Post Modernist Approach to Organisational Analysis

Postmodernism is a broad movement that developed in the 20^th century that is a departure from modernism (Mura, 2012). Whilst encompassing a wide variety of approaches, postmodernism is generally defined by an attitude of scepticism, irony or rejection towards the meta-narratives and ideologies of modernism, often calling into question various assumptions of enlightenment rationality (Duigan, 2016). Postmodernists frequently call attention to the contingent nature of knowledge claims and value systems, situating them as products of a particular political, historical or cultural discourses and hierarchies. Post-modernism is concerned with the abandonment of conventional ideas of originality and authorship in favour of a pastiche of novel and unique style (Palmer, 2014).

Post-modernism entails an intellectual movement which arose to challenge or deconstruct several modernist themes that had been articulated during the enlightenment period. Post-modernism, led by Derrida, was concerned with a desire to contribute to the re-evaluation of all Western values built from alleged pure reason in the 18^th century and carried forward to the 19^th century in their more radical implications (Zuckert, 1996). The challenges were on downstream thinking which accepts the status quo voetstoots, with neither reservation nor qualification but rather vague generalisation. On the other hand post-modernism seeks qualification for phenomena, actions, systems, cultures, languages and any other aspect of an organisation deconstructing them to seek the hidden meanings and dichotomies that are presented as a shared phenomenon. Post-modernist approaches to organisational analysis can be viewed as upstream thinking as they seek a deeper and hidden understanding of phenomena with the aim of establishing what informs thought processes and decisions, the motives intended and the dynamics involved (Murphy, 2009).

The primary tenets of post-modernism are the elevation of text and language as fundamental phenomena of existence, the application of literary analysis to all phenomena, a questioning of reality and representation, a critique of metanarratives, argument against method and evaluation, a focus on power relations and hegemony and a general critique of western institutions and knowledge (Boyne & Rattansi, 1990) (Kuzner, 2008). Hence, post-modernism entails the intellectual movement applied to all facets of organisational analysis that seeks a deeper understanding of phenomena, questioning what is assumed to be the rationale behind such phenomenon and seeking to establish motives and dynamics involved.

Notable post-modernist approaches include focus on post-modernism in academic anthropology (Agar, 1997), Baudrillard (1995) whose main argument was that there is no real world but the world as we know it is a set of models ( (Roseneau, 1993), the deconstruction of texts and probing the relationship of meaning between texts (Derrida, 1997), focus on power (Foucault, 1970), trying to show that what society views as permanent truths actually changes over time, post-modernism in the religious settings and institutions (Geertz, 1973), and the critique of grand narratives, metanarratives and proposed the acceptance of the un-representable (Lyotard, 1984). For the purpose of this paper the writer will test the works of Buadrillard (1995), Foucault (1970), and Lyotard (1984) as they are better suited at addressing the issue of HR strategizing in an organisational setting.

Post-modernism offers vast possibilities to the Human Resources Strategist in crafting strategies. Most of these Human Resources strategies inform processes which would ultimately lead to Human Resources outcomes or products. Post-modernism thus contributes to the creation of well thought out strategies calculated to deliver the mandate of the organisation through processes and outcomes.

Cultural strategies in organisations are informed by post-modernism in Zimbabwe. Culture as has three levels which are artefacts, espoused values and basic assumptions and values (Schein, 1992). Artefacts or symbolism in general and corporate wear in particular has been extensively used by organisations in Zimbabwean mining sector such as RioZim, Mbada Diamonds (prior to consolidation), Zimplats, Unki Platinum Mine and Mimosa Mining Company among others to drive corporate strategies. Informed by post-modernism, the dress codes, branding, information printed on the corporate wear as well as colour codes are intended to have a deeper meaning that seeks or is aimed at driving particular interests of the organisation’s overall strategy. Of note is the ubiquitous “Zero harm” mantra meant to instil a sense of safety through cultural symbolism. These are deliberate attempts to influence the way employees in an organisation think and behave in certain circumstances. Modernists, positivist and downstream thinkers will view dressing as it is without attaching any meaning whilst post-modernist, who are upstream thinkers, will seek to attach meaning and thus be able to drive a subtle agenda through Human Resources strategies.

Control, disciplinary and security strategies in the mining industry in Zimbabwe have been greatly informed by Foucault’s (1970) post-modernist perspective on discipline and control. Foucault (1970) argues that people’s behaviour can be controlled and discipline maintained through observation and examination. He also argues that behaviour could be rectified or aligned to intended behaviour through a learned sense of observation which he termed the panopticon. This is a scenario whereby one thinks he is being observed and thus normalises behaviour. Discipline and control in the mining industry are maintained through the use of Closed Circuit Television, Alcohol and drug breathalysers and uniformed security personnel. The intended intention of these is not to catch thieves, delinquents or those committing acts of misconduct. The actual intent according to Foucault (1970) is rather to dissuade employees from committing such acts of misconduct in the first place and normalising their own behaviour.

Baudrillard’s (1995) argument that the world as we know it is a set of models can be used to inform Human Resources Strategies in the mining industry in Zimbabwe. Organisations are run by people who are heterogeneous and capable of doing anything either consistent or inconsistent with the needs and aspirations of shareholders. Hence the behaviour of employees need to be conditioned in such a way that action are predictable and preferable through the employ of various models aimed at achieving intended results in any aspect of the organisation. Almost all aspects of Human Resources and Strategy are informed by models be they of recruitment, training, discipline, motivation, reward, and in novel situations then congruence models are employed. This then follows the post-modernist views that Human Resources strategies should be informed by models that have already been tried and tested successfully (Baudrillard, 1995).

Post-modernism has also led to Human Resources strategies that favour individualism and accountability. This stems from the positivist approach of reification of the organisation. Post-modernists on the other hand view the organisation as composed of individuals who make decisions and commit actions which collectively or those of the dominant people will then be called organisational decisions, as the Upper Echelon theory suggests (Hambrick & Mason, 1984). This has led to strategies in reward and discipline aimed at rewarding those individuals who drive organisational objectives, as in the case of the Zimplats departmental bonus schemes. It has also informed decisions on discipline and punishment especially when it comes to the personal accountability of corporate executives in making poor decisions that border criminal conduct and the liability ceases to be of the company as a legal persona but rather as an official in his personal capacity.

The advantage of post-modernist approaches when applied to Human Resources Strategy is that it looks beyond the obvious and establishes the hidden meaning and intent which could then be used as a basis of creating strategies. Post-modernism also contributes to the establishment of desired cultures in organisations intended to drive corporate objectives.

There are however challenges in using post-modernism as a tool in coming up with Human Resources strategies. Post-modernism, Derrida (1997) in particular is criticised for problematizing the grounds of reason, truth and knowledge. Post-modernism is criticised for questioning the highest point by demanding the reasoning behind reasoning itself (Norris, 1990). Though post-modernism enables for critical evaluation of phenomena, not all phenomenon need to be critically evaluated and not all phenomenon have hidden meanings. As positivism suggests at times things are what they are.

In light of the above discussion post-modernism is an important tool in the analysis of organisations in general and in Human Resources strategy in particular. The contributions thereof inform strategies meant to deliver on their mandate as well as drive organisational objectives. However, in applying post-modernism, the Human Resources practitioner should be informed that not all aspects of post-modernism are applicable hence the need to use post-modernism in line with the congruency model such that at the end of the day fit and alignment are achieved.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

References

Agar, M. (1997). Postmodern Link between Academia and Practice. RSS Feed National Association for the Practice of Anthropology Bulletin.

Baudrillard, J. (1995). Simulacra Simulation. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

Boyne, R., & Rattansi, A. (1990). The theory f Politics of postmodernism: By way of an Introduction. London: McMillan Limited.

Derrida, J. (1997). Deconstruction in a nutshell. New York: Fordham University Press.

Duigan, B. (2016, April 24). Postmodernism. Retrieved from Brittanica: http://www.britannica.com/postmodernism

Foucault, M. (1970). The Order of Things: an Archeology f Human Sciences. New York City: Pantheon Books.

Geertz, C. (1973). The INterpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books.

Hambrick, D. C., & Mason, P. A. (1984). Upper Echelons: The Organisation as a reflection of its Top Managers. The Academy of Management Review 9 (2), 193-206.

Kuzner, L. A. (2008). Reclaiming a scientific anthropology. Lanham: Altamira.

Lyotard, J.-F. (1984). The Postmodern Condition: A report on Knowledge. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

Mura, A. (2012). The Symbolic Function f Transmodenity. Language and Psychoanalysis 1 (1) doi:10.7565/landp.2012.0005, 68-87.

Murphy, M. D. (2009). Postmodernism and its critics Daniel Saberg, Robert Stewart, Karla Wesley and Shannon Weiss. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama.

Norris, C. (1990). What is wrong with postmodernism. London: Harvester Whetsheaf.

Palmer, D. (2014, January 3). Explainer: What Is Post-Modernism. Retrieved from theconversation.com: https://theconversation.com/amp/explainer-what-is-post-modernism-20791

Roseneau, P. (1993). Postmodernism and the Social Sciences. New York: John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Schein, E. (1992). Organistionl Culture and Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Zuckert, C. (1996). Postmodern Platos: Nietzsche, Heidegger, Gadamer, Strauss, Derrida. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.